In comparing the case(s) from developed and developing nations, in what ways do modern communication technologies and online platforms engender and undermine an individual’s abilities to mobilise and champion a democratic public sphere? (Hint: Think of the possibilities and challenges of online activism such as #MeToo, #BlackLivesMatter, #ClimateChange, and so forth)
Introduction: 200
Modern communication technologies and online platforms have emerged as potent tools for fostering individual mobilisation and championing democratic participation in the public sphere. However, the impact of these technologies is multifaceted, engendering both opportunities and challenges that can significantly shape the trajectory of online activism. This essay aims to critically examine these dynamics by comparing case studies from developed and developing nations, thereby offering a nuanced understanding of the global digital landscape. Key terms pertinent to this discussion will be defined, followed by an exploration of various case studies that highlight how these technologies can bolster democratic participation. These case studies will draw from prominent online movements such as #MeToo, #WhiteWednesdays and the Hong Kong protests, among others. Subsequently, the essay will delve into the darker side of these technologies, scrutinizing their potential to undermine democratic processes through the spread of disinformation and the exacerbation of digital divides. The conclusion will synthesise these insights, arguing that despite the challenges, the benefits of modern communication technologies and online platforms in fostering democratic participation ultimately prevail.
Define key terms: modern communication technologies, online platforms, democratic public sphere, digital divide.
Section 1: The Role of Modern Communication Technologies and Online Platforms in Developed Nations
The advent of modern communication technologies and online platforms has significantly influenced the ways in which individuals mobilize and champion a democratic public sphere. This is particularly evident in the case of online activism movements such as #MeToo, #BlackLivesMatter, and #ClimateChange. These movements have leveraged the power of digital platforms to raise awareness, mobilize support, and effect change on a global scale. However, the impact of these movements varies across different socio-cultural contexts, particularly when comparing developed and developing nations (Rastrelli 2021; Muzyamba 2021).
The #MeToo movement, for instance, has been instrumental in raising awareness about sexual misconduct and violence, particularly in Western societies. It was initiated in 2006 by Tarana Burke, a young black activist, to highlight the prevalence of sexual misconduct in society (Rastrelli 2021). The movement gained significant momentum in 2017 when actress Alyssa Milano tweeted about it in the wake of the Harvey Weinstein scandal. This led to a surge in the movement's popularity, with survivors of sexual harassment, assault, and abuse across the world rallying on Twitter and Instagram, using the hashtag #MeToo (Rastrelli 2021).
However, the movement has been criticized for its neoliberal feminist approach, which is seen as privileging the voices and experiences of white, middle-class women while marginalizing those of women of color and other marginalized identities. This has led to accusations that the movement is being co-opted by white, neoliberal feminists for their own gain, rather than genuinely seeking to address the systemic issues of sexual violence and male entitlement (Rastrelli 2021).
In contrast, the #MeToo movement's impact in developing nations such as Zambia and Bangladesh has been different. In Zambia, the movement has been instrumental in exposing the problem of sexual violence and creating opportunities for redress. It has highlighted the patriarchal, male-dominated culture that has long incubated and embraced sexual violence without holding perpetrators accountable (Muzyamba 2021). However, the movement has been criticized for being blind to the intersection of race, class, and sexual violence, and for lacking contextual appropriation. The movement's approach has been seen as a "one-size-fits-all" strategy that fails to consider the specific socio-cultural realities of different contexts (Muzyamba 2021).
Similarly, in Bangladesh, the Nari: Mahila Bus Service Limited movement, which is similar in cause to #MeToo, has been effective in breaking down barriers and addressing issues of sexual violence. However, unlike #MeToo, the Nari movement did not seek visibility on the global stage but focused on mobilizing resources and framing their cause within their cultural and societal context (Rastrelli 2021).
The digital divide between developed and developing nations further complicates the issue. As of 2021, 87% of individuals in developed countries have access to the internet, compared to only 47% in developing countries (ITU 2021). This disparity is even more pronounced when considering gender, with women in developing countries being 23% less likely than men to use the internet (ITU 2021). This digital divide means that the voices of women in developing countries are less likely to be heard in online movements like #MeToo and this has likely influenced the effectiveness of this campaign in those countries.
Section 2: The Role of Modern Communication Technologies and Online Platforms in Developing Nations 360
Despite the uneven nature of global movements, modern communicative technology that arises in developing nations can be essential to building mass democratic movements. The 2017-2018 and 2019 protests in Iran, as well as the full-scale women's protest movement that emerged in 2022, exemplify this transformative role of modern communication technologies in fostering democratic public spheres in developing countries (Sohrabi 2021; Sajadi 2023). These protests, initially triggered by economic grievances and issues of women's rights, rapidly escalated and spread across the nation, largely facilitated by social media platforms like Telegram. This is reflected in the significant increase in internet usage in Iran from 2000 to 2021, as shown in Figure XX.
The government's response, including temporary blocking of Telegram and a near-total internet shutdown in 2019, underscores the perceived threat of these technologies to the status quo, highlighting their effectiveness in promoting democratic participation (Sohrabi 2021; Sajadi 2023). The 2019 protests, unlike their 2017 counterparts, saw limited international response due to the information blackout, allowing the government to brutally suppress the protests with minimal international scrutiny (Sohrabi 2021). Despite these challenges, these protests marked a significant shift in Iran's public sphere, with citizens openly criticising the government (Sohrabi 2021). The women's movement in 2022 further amplified this shift, demonstrating the power of disciplined and nonviolent tactics in achieving social change and putting pressure on politicians (Sajadi 2023).
Moreover, new media's role in shaping public opinion and influencing political discourse in Iran has become increasingly evident. The 2017 #whitewednesday campaign, protesting mandatory hijab laws, and the case of Saeed Toosi, a prominent Quran reciter accused of sexual abuse, highlight the power of new media to bring attention to issues that traditional Iranian media outlets might otherwise ignore (Sohrabi 2021). The 2022 women's movement further exemplifies this, with the participation of young women, teenagers, and celebrities garnering national and international support and imposing significant political cost (Sajadi 2023). During this period, between 2016 and 2017 internet usage in Iran jumped 10.8%, the largest increase in a 10-year period. It steadily rose by a further 14% across the following four years. This campaign and subsequent significant rise in the use of internet demonstrate how new media can serve as a potent tool for political dissent and social change, even amidst government censor ship and control (Sohrabi 2021; Sajadi 2023)."
Figure 1: Internet Usage in Iran (2000-2021)
This graph illustrates the significant increase in internet usage in Iran from 2000 to 2021. The percentage of the population using the internet has risen from less than 1% in 2000 to over 78% in 2021. This trend underscores the growing importance of digital technologies in shaping public discourse and facilitating political activism in Iran.
Section 3: Challenges and Limitations 300
While modern communication technologies and online platforms have significantly influenced the ways in which individuals mobilise and champion a democratic public sphere, they also present a range of challenges and limitations. One of the most significant of these is the potential for misinformation and manipulation on online platforms. This was starkly evident during the 2016 U.S. presidential election, where an estimated 115 pro-Trump false stories were shared on Facebook 30 million times, and 41 pro-Clinton false stories were shared 7.6 million times (Allcott & Gentzkow, 2017). This spread of 'fake news' has the potential to significantly distort public discourse and undermine democratic processes.
Another limitation of online activism is the potential for 'slacktivism' or 'clicktivism', where individuals engage in low-effort, low-risk online activities such as liking, sharing, or signing online petitions, without necessarily engaging in more substantive forms of activism. This was evident in the case of the Ice Bucket Challenge, a viral campaign to raise awareness and funds for ALS research, where many participants shared videos of themselves dumping ice water on their heads without actually donating to the cause (Kristofferson, White, & Peloza, 2014).
Online platforms can also create 'echo chambers' or 'filter bubbles', where individuals are exposed primarily to information and opinions that align with their own, thereby reinforcing existing beliefs and limiting exposure to diverse perspectives. This can contribute to the spread of conspiracy theories and misinformation, as seen with the proliferation of QAnon conspiracy theories on platforms like Facebook and Twitter (Marwick & Lewis, 2017).
Finally, there are significant challenges in ensuring equal access to online platforms and digital literacy. As of 2021, 87% of individuals in developed countries have access to the internet, compared to only 47% in developing countries (ITU, 2021). Furthermore, women in developing countries are 23% less likely than men to use the internet (ITU, 2021). This digital divide means that the voices of individuals in developing countries, and particularly women, are less likely to be heard in online movements like #MeToo. While data on global digital literacy rates is limited, it is clear that disparities in digital literacy can further exacerbate these inequalities, limiting the ability of individuals in developing countries to fully participate in the digital public sphere.
In conclusion, while modern communication technologies and online platforms offer significant opportunities for individual mobilisation and democratic participation, they also present a range of challenges and limitations. Addressing these issues will require concerted efforts to promote digital literacy, ensure equitable access to digital technologies, and develop strategies to combat misinformation and manipulation on online platforms.
Section 4: BLM and #EndSARS
Conclusion:
Summarize the main points made in the essay.
Discuss potential solutions or strategies to address the challenges identified.
Conclude with a reflection on the potential of modern communication technologies and online platforms to mobilize and champion a democratic public sphere in both developed and developing nations.